Agonist, antagonist and synergist muscle control is vital for a normalized and non-pathological scapulothoracic rhythm. DISCLAIMER: THIS WEBSITE DOES NOT PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICEThe information, including but not limited to, text, graphics, images and other material contained on this website are for informational purposes only. The latissimus dorsi, a broad sheet of muscle that covers much of the lower back, is a powerful adductor of the shoulder. There are four helpful rules that can be applied to all major joints except the ankle and knee because the lower extremity is rotated during development. Overall, to rehabilitate the neuromuscular control of the shoulder complex, the therapist should focus on the following elements: Progression factors to consider to challenge the neuromuscular control of the shoulder complex: For more exercises for the rotator cuff complex: Myers, J.B., C.A. Agonist - A muscle or muscle group that is described as being primarily responsible for a specific joint movement when contracting. coracobrachialis Latissimus dorsi is a muscle of posterior back has an attachment to scapula and humerus. A clinical perspective. exercise science, Bench Press Targeted Muscles, Grips, and Movement Patterns, Brian Sutton, MA, MS, CSCS, NASM-CPT, CNC, CES, PES, If you want to avoid elbow pain while benching, A Nutritious Obsession? You use the pectoralis major in a pushup or a dumbbell fly. antagonist: hamstrings, infraspinatus -Rotate the vertebral column to the opposite side, semispinalis The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Chapter 21. document.getElementById("ak_js_1").setAttribute("value",(new Date()).getTime()); Join Moosmosis and our wonderful lifelong learning community today! Upon activation, the muscle pulls the insertion toward the origin. Get Top Tips Tuesday and The Latest Physiopedia updates, The content on or accessible through Physiopedia is for informational purposes only. Latissimus Dorsi supraspinatus deltoid trapezius serratus anterior. Hamstrings. Suppose that in this system of units, the energy EEE of the incident particles is 2, and the barrier height U0U_0U0 is 4 . The moveable end of the muscle that attaches to the bone being pulled is called the muscles insertion, and the end of the muscle attached to a fixed (stabilized) bone is called the origin. The sticking point occurs shortly after the initiation of the concentric phase of the lift, typically when the bar is 3-16 cm from the chest (Van den Tilaar & Ettema, 2013). 68-year-old female with history of breast cancer presents to the clinic after her breast surgery and sentinel node biopsy. This website really has all of the info I wanted about this subject and didnt know who to ask. The muscles that cause rotation of the shoulder include the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and the subscapularis. Transcribed image text: PHASE 3 Arm abduction at the shoulder Joint Complete the following steps: 1 Select Play to have the movement demonstrated 2 Label the antagonist and agonist for the movement demonstrated in the left view. (LogOut/ Change). brachioradialis If you believe that this Physiopedia article is the primary source for the information you are refering to, you can use the button below to access a related citation statement. He specializes in writing about health and fitness and has written for "Fit Yoga" magazine and the New York Times City Room blog. rhomboid major Lack of mobility of the upper extremity, cervical and thoracic neurological tissues (nerve flossing exercises as needed). 2002;92(6):230918. as well as a healthy sense of muscular timing). To visualize the stretch reflex, imagine stretching a rubber band and then immediately letting go. The Valsalva maneuver requires a bearing down technique in which a person exhales through a closed glottis (airway). brachialis Effects of Different Volume-Equated Resistance Training Loading Strategies on Muscular Adaptations in Well-Trained Men. 2019 www.azcentral.com. sartorius Many argue this is the safest position for the shoulder complex, especially during heavy lifts because it provides added stability for the shoulders. A muscle that crosses the posterior side of a joint results in extension, which results in an increase in joint angle with movement. deep 6. erector spinae What action does the supraspinatus perform? Sep-Oct;26(5):732-42.Gomo, O., & Tillaar, R. (2015). Blood supply to the Supraspinatus is the suprascapular artery. You have done a formidable job and our entire community will be thankful to you. and adaptive pectoralis minor shorting[18]. Do not lift your arms in front of you or behind you that is not arm abduction but rather arm flexion or arm extension, respectively. > Aim to perform the exercise through a full range of motion unless mobility/flexibility deficits restrict motion or pain/pinching sensations are felt in the shoulder region. Many actions occur at this ball-and-socket joint. Thanks! Transversospinalis rotatores The supraspinatus muscle initiates the abduction movement of the arm by pulling the humeral head medially towards the glenoid cavity thereby creating a fulcrum for movement. Retrieved September 18, 2015, from http://www.exrx.net/Kinesiology/BenchPress.html.Bianco, A., Filingeri, D., Paoli, A., & Palma, A. The lower fiber of SA has a longer moment arm to maintain this scapular upward rotation. Similarly, abduction and adduction at the wrist moves the hand away from or toward the midline of the body. It has been shown in the literature that performing the bench press with the elbows flared out to the sides and/or using a wide grip is best for activating the pectoralis muscles, particularly the sternoclavicular portion of the pectoralis major, the largest portion of the chest (Lehman, 2015). Serratus Anterior is innervated by the Long Thoracic Nerve. For a short distance when t=0t=0t=0, its speed is then increased by at=(0.4t)m/s2a_t=(0.4 t) \mathrm{m} / \mathrm{s}^2at=(0.4t)m/s2, where ttt is in seconds. It runs from the scapula across the back of the humerus and is a secondary adductor of the shoulder. Happy learning, and wishing you the bestest luck on your medical exams, future doctor! extensor digitorum longus Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan-. Moreover, the term sensorimotor system describes the sensory, motor, and central integration and processing components involved in maintaining joint homeostasis during bodily movements - more commonly understood to be functional joint stability. A prominent muscle of the chest, it ties the sternum, cartilage of the upper ribs and the collarbone to the front of the upper arm. One of the largest of these muscles is the latissimus dorsi, a . Transcribed image text: PHASE 2 Forearm extension at the elbow joint Complete the following steps: Select Play to have the movement demonstrated 2 Label the antagonist and agonist for the movement demonstrated in the right view. pectineus The primary joint actions that occur during the bench press include: Eccentric (lowering) Phase. latissimus dorsi Latissimus Dorsi Free lessons and student opportunities. Drawing-in and abdominal bracing activates the inner unit (transverse abdominis, multifidus, pelvic floor- muscles close to the spine) and global abdominal muscles (rectus abdominis, external obliques) offering greater spinal stability. For example, the anterior arm muscles cause elbow flexion. Scalenus Anterior Lower trapezius: along with the serratus anterior muscle, they are a primary upward rotators of the scapula. This is important to note, as they tend to have a similar inferior line of pull[10] and with the summation of the three force vectors of rotator cuff, they nearly offset the superior translation of humeral head, created by the deltoid muscle. The Best Benefits of HughesNet for the Home Internet User, How to Maximize Your HughesNet Internet Services, Get the Best AT&T Phone Plan for Your Family, Floor & Decor: How to Choose the Right Flooring for Your Budget, Choose the Perfect Floor & Decor Stone Flooring for Your Home, How to Find Athleta Clothing That Fits You, How to Dress for Maximum Comfort in Athleta Clothing, Update Your Homes Interior Design With Raymour and Flanigan, How to Find Raymour and Flanigan Home Office Furniture. Although a number of muscles may be involved in an action, the principal muscle involved is called the prime mover, or agonist. Privacy Notice/Your California Privacy Rights, Anatomy of Movement; Blandine Calais-Germain, Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations for Rehabilitation; Donald A. Neumann. Upper part inserts into the clavicle and has no attachment to the scapula, middle attached to the acromion and spine of the scapula, and the lower part inserts into themedial base of the scapular spine. For example, the muscles in the posterior arm cause elbow extension. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738110362518. : How Orthorexia Changes Our View of Food and Fuel in Fitness, Calf Workouts: How to Grow the Often-Stubborn Muscle Group, Body Types: Mesomorph, Ectomorphs, & Endomorphs Explained. Your website provided us with valuable info to work on. Agonist muscles are the muscles that perform a movement, while antagonist muscles perform the opposite movements. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mm9_WrrGCEc. Haha, Pamela! And as it attaches to scapula proximally, humerus distally, for effective adduction and extension it acts to pull humerus to the scapula (stable part), and hence this movement associated with scapula downward rotation and retraction. When it contracts with a fixed craniocervical region it elevates and retracts the clavicle at the level of the sternoclavicular joint[14]. The opposite, or antagonistic, action of. gemellus inferior An opposing thumb grip provides more security and control of the barbell. Helen promised that if Kelly had another paroxysm when she heard the word "no," Helen would (a) Identify one example of Farquhar's distorted perceptions. Horizontal shoulder abduction. Assist; Adductor Magnus, Gluteus Medius and Minimus Behm DG. Note: Two boxes will remain empty Click Verify Record observations in Lab Data Verify METHODS RESET MY NOTES A LABDATA SHOW LABELS GO TO PHASE 4 PLASES agonist: QL antagonist: opposite QL. Wilk KE, Yenchak AJ, Arrigo CA, Andrews JR. [Updated 2020 Mar 31]. Please keep us informed like this. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2000:3751. The bench press is a popular exercise and there is ample evidence describing its use for improving upper body muscular endurance, strength, muscle size, and power.This article discusses the traditional barbell bench press from a fitness perspective. There is ample evidence describing its use for improving upper body muscular endurance, strength, hypertrophy (muscle size) and power (Buitrago et al., 2013; Ogasawara et al., 2012; Schoenfeld et al., 2014). These techniques should be the focus before adding additional weight or focusing on maximal lifts. Teres major strenohyold Eccentric exercises for rotator cuff muscles in case of a suspected. pectoralis major Strengthening of surrounding supportive musculature (Biceps, triceps, latissimus dorsi, rhomboids, cervical stability muscles, dorsal spine supportive musculature). The hemideltoid muscle flap. The bodys muscles and tendons work in the same fashion. Thank you for sharing. Lam JH, Bordoni B. Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Arm Abductor Muscles. In other words, keep the spine in a neutral position. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. Blood supply to the Deltoid is the posterior circumflex humeral artery.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'moosmosis_org-large-leaderboard-2','ezslot_7',151,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-moosmosis_org-large-leaderboard-2-0'); Blood supply to the Trapezius is the Transverse Cervical Artery. Assist; . The glenohumeral jointcommonly referred to as the shoulder jointconsists of the attachment of the humerus bone to the scapula. synergist and antagonist muscles. extensor carpi ulnaris muscles, flexor carpi radialis rectus femoris Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 26, 226-231. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31821d5e1bSchoenfeld, B., Ratamess, N., Peterson, M., Contreras, B., Sonmez, G., & Alvar, B. Were so glad this helped. extensor hallucis longus Hip flexors. Why Should Runners Add Strength Training? Like most other muscles in your body, the deltoids are skeletal muscles. teres major [2], Lastly, proprioception within this context can be understood as an important component of the sensorimotor system; whereby the balance between mobility and stability of the glenohumeral (GH) joint is ensured by a neuromuscular interaction between capsular ligamentous receptors, the central nervous system (CNS), and the stabilizing muscles of the shoulder complex.[3]. illiopsoas Neuromuscular control in this context, can be understood as the unconscious activation of dynamic restraints occurring in preparation for, and in response to, joint motion and loading for the purpose of maintaining functional joint stability.[1] Dynamic restraints result from neuromuscular control over the shoulder muscles, facilitated through motor control and proprioceptive input. Lephart SM, Riemann BL, Fu FH. posterior deltoid Supraspinatus abducted the shoulder from (0-15), and has an effective role as a shoulder stabilizer muscle by keeping the humeral head pressed medially against the glenoid cavity this stability function allows supraspinatus to contribute with deltoid in shoulder abduction. [9], Blood supply of the deltoid: The posterior circumflex humeral artery and the deltoid branch of the thoracoacromial artery are the vascular sources for the deltoid. For smooth synchronous movement of the shoulder complex we need the force couplings of the glenohumeral and scapulothoracic joints to work in a synched timing and adequate forces to offset each other. You made some decent factors there. and prevent downward rotatory movement created by deltoid (middle/posterior) and are a synergistic muscle with deltoid regards to glenohumeral forces to abduct the G.H joint. 2000;35(3):35163. adductor mangus, longus & brevis Subscapularis originates at the medial and lower two-thirds of the lateral border of the subscapular fossa. The Best Bodyweight Shoulder Exercises for Beginners At Home, Glucose Transporters GLUT and SGLT: Biochemistry, MCAT, and USMLE, Motivational Quote of the Day: Every mountain top is within reach if you just keep climbing. ~Barry Finlay, Circulatory System: Coronary Artery Disease vs Stable Angina vs Unstable Angina vs NSTEMI vs STEMI Moosmosis, Pathoma: Chapter 1. pectoralis major Moosmosis, Happy Thanksgiving! Latissimus Dorsi The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. 22-year-old Division I football athlete presents to the orthopedic clinic with difficulty initiating abduction in his right arm. INSERT FIGURE LIKE FOCUS FIGURE 10.1d IN MARIEB-11E. It also serves as a stabilizer of the humeral head, especially in instances ofcarrying a load. rectus wapitis posterior major, rectus capitis posterior minor The supraspinatus is located on the greater tubercle of the humerus.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[250,250],'moosmosis_org-medrectangle-4','ezslot_2',148,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-moosmosis_org-medrectangle-4-0'); Deltoid is the second shoulder muscle responsible for arm abduction. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like shoulder abduction, shoulder adduction, shoulder internal rotation and more. pectoralis major extensor carpi radialis brevis 2019. The Influence of Grip Width and Forearm Pronation/Supination on Upper-Body Myoelectric Activity During the Flat Bench Press. semitendinosus The dynamic stability of shoulder complex can be divided into: See the Physiopedia page on the Biomechanics of the Shoulder, for an in-depth exploration of accessory movements and the contributions of global movers and fine-tuning muscles of the shoulder complex. Imagine our super dads reaching up with their arms stretched out above their heads, like Super Man, and tickling a really tall super alpaca. Petoralis major Muscles are connected to bones by: Tendons In the Shoulder elbow movement lab, this muscle is the prime mover for forearm flexion of the arm at the elbow joint. Happy learning, and wishing you the best on your medical studies journey!! Internal Obliques PMID: 30725950. Richardson E, Lewis JS, Gibson J, Morgan C, Halaki M, Ginn K, Yeowell G. Moghadam AN, Abdi K, Shati M, Dehkordi SN, Keshtkar AA, Mosallanezhad Z. Ortega-Castillo M, Medina-Porqueres I. TFL Its a technique used to increase intraabdominal pressure and may enable a person to lift heavier loads. Provide recommendations for beginning fitness enthusiasts wishing to perform the bench press exercise. peroneus tertis, peroneus longus No material on this site is intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. It inserts onto the lesser tubercle of the humerus. As confidence grows, fitness enthusiasts can begin to explore a variety of grip positions. A muscle with the opposite action of the prime mover is called an antagonist. Fair 5. Soleus If you want to avoid elbow pain while benching, follow the link. Dynamic stretching of the typically shortened and possibly over-active muscles (Pectorals muscles, upper trapezius, levator scapulae muscles). Thank you. Which Muscles Stretch Your Arms Over Your Head? Thank you Darnell! gluteus maximus Pectoralis Major . Deltoid is innervated by the Axillary Nerve.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[250,250],'moosmosis_org-banner-1','ezslot_6',150,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-moosmosis_org-banner-1-0'); Trapezius is innervated by the Accessory Nerve. 3. antagonist: rectus abdominus, illiopsoas Do your results agree? biceps femoris He holds a master's degree in applied physiology from Columbia University, Teacher's College. After the wrist flexes on one are and pulls back down toward the body, it ends up in a position similar to the placement of the hand in the fundamental position. The truck travels along a circular road that has a radius of 50m50 \mathrm{~m}50m at a speed of 4m/s4 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}4m/s. As the contralateral arm is extended and beginning wrist flexion, the arm along the body begins slight horizontal abduction and shoulder extension, which Start with a standard grip of the bar approximately shoulder-width and the upper arms abducted about 45, and avoid an excessively wide or narrow grip. Moosmosis Global Health & Education Moosmosis, Greek Goddess Athena Facts & Mythology: Who was Athena the Goddess of? Lephart. Brian Sutton is a 20-year veteran in the health and fitness industry, working as a personal trainer, author, and content manager. internal oblique Philadelphia: Fadavis Company. The strong action of serratus as a protractor/upward rotator needs an apposite force to control this movement (equally strong antagonist). Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health care provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or treatment and before undertaking a new health care regimen, and never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this website. The biceps is engaged in a shortening contraction as it brings the weight closer to your arm. It originates at the bottom tip of the shoulder blade, or scapula, and inserts onto the front of the arm bone. During flexing of the forearm, the triceps brachii is the antagonist muscle, resisting the movement of the forearm up towards the shoulder. This can compress the tendons and soft tissues within this space, leading to acute or chronic inflammation and dysfunction ( rotator cuff tendinopathy /shoulder impingement)[19]. The shoulder abduction muscles are Supraspinatus, Deltoid, Trapezius, and Serratus Anterior. Therefore, it acts as a counter to the lateral translation force of the serratus anterior muscle. Good 6. posterior deltoid Contraction of the supraspinatus muscle leads to abduction of the arm at the shoulder joint. FIGURE OF ISOLATED TRICEPS BRACHII. Protein and Weight Loss: How Much Protein Do You Need to Eat Per Day? pectinous Middle and lower fibers: they contribute with serratus anterior to rotate scapula upward, externally rotate the scapula through their torque on AC joint and have a retractor force on scapula that force offsets the protraction of SA muscle. Several other muscles assist the major adductors of the shoulder. latissimus dorsi pectoralis major Assist by: coracobrachialis triceps brachii. Instead emphasis is placed on the smaller muscles (triceps brachii, anterior deltoid, upper chest) and as a result may not be ideal to develop maximal strength or muscular size. Top Contributors - Khloud Shreif, Amanda Ager, Kim Jackson and Rishika Babburu. internal oblique For the sake of this article we will discuss the traditional barbell bench press from a fitness perspective. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 29(5): 10-14.Lehman, G. (2005). (b) Atomic radius. Moosmosis Global Health Education Moosmosis, Education in the 1930s Depression Facts and John Dewey Father of Modern Education Moosmosis, The Little Ice Age: Definition, History, Causes, and Ending of the Ice Age Moosmosis, Jane Eyre: Chapters 1, 2, and 3 [Free Book Chapters] and Literary Analysis Essays Moosmosis, TB Tests, Drugs and Side Effects for Tuberculosis: [USMLE, MCAT, Biology] Moosmosis, The Life Cycle of a Retrovirus: HIV Moosmosis, Happy Holidays and Happy New Year! antagonist: illiopsoas, KINES agonists, synergists, & antagonists, Appendicular Muscle Actions (Grouped by Actio, John Lund, Paul S. Vickery, P. Scott Corbett, Todd Pfannestiel, Volker Janssen, Byron Almen, Dorothy Payne, Stefan Kostka, Eric Hinderaker, James A. Henretta, Rebecca Edwards, Robert O. Self, Chapter 4 question and answer, Chapter 5 Preb. Quadriceps. teres major. The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. Your deltoid muscles are in your shoulder, which is the ball-and-socket joint that connects your arm to the trunk of your body. Force Couple , Scapular Force Couple. All rights reserved. Internal and external rotation strengths were measured (1) with the arm abducted 15 degrees and neutral external/internal rotation and (2) with the arm abducted 90 degrees and externally rotated 30 degrees above the transverse plane. peroneus brevis Presence of tight muscles due to postural stress and neurological hyperactivity (such as the presence of trigger points). One repetition maximum bench press performance: A new approach for its evaluation in inexperienced males and females: A pilot study. The triceps would be the antagonist muscle as it lengthens. Antagonists play two important roles in muscle function: (1) they maintain body or limb position, such as holding the arm out or standing erect; and (2) they control rapid movement, as in shadow boxing without landing a punch or the ability to check the motion of a limb. Like Figure 10.15b in Marieb-11e. However, it is important to note, this position limits the amount of load a person can lift. Proper biomechanical alignment and accessory movements of the 4 shoulder complex joints (GH joint, acromioclavicular joint, sternoclavicular joint, and the floating scapulothoracic joint, Strengthening of the typically weak / inhibited muscles (Such as the serratus anterior, rotator cuff muscles, lower trapezius, rhomboid muscles). The athlete contracts the antagonist isometrically against resistance provided by the therapist for 6-10 seconds. Tensor fasciae latae (TFL) Several muscles can abduct the shoulder. (LogOut/ Teres major has the same action of latissimus dorsi of adduction, extension, internal rotation. The sticking point is not the same location for everyone yet researchers have concluded it usually takes place about 0.2 seconds after the initial upward movement, and lasts about 0.9 seconds (Van den Tilaar & Ettema, 2013). Lower the barbell until a slight stretch is felt in the pectorals. Tensor fascia latae Hes earned an MA in Sport Management from the University of San Francisco, an MS in Exercise Science from the California University of Pennsylvania, and several certifications from NASM and NSCA. Most notably on physical exam, there appears a deformity in the top of his shoulder. For example, the teres major muscle, on the medial side of the arm causes shoulder abduction. [11], Innervation of the deltoid: The neural supply of the deltoid is via the axillary nerve (C5, C6) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus.[11]. In the shoulder elbow movement lab, this muscle is the prime mover for adduction of the arm at the shoulder joint. Rotator cuff coactivation ratios in participants with subacromial impingement syndrome. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Volume 12, Issue 6, November 2009, Pages 603-608, Role of the kinetic chain in shoulder rehabilitation: does incorporating the trunk and lower limb into shoulder exercise regimes influence shoulder muscle recruitment patterns? Glad you enjoyed the article and muscles. There are also the periscapsular muscles[4], which are very important for homogeneous shoulder movements while avoiding biomechanical misalignments, such as a shoulder impingement. It's more active during arm elevation in abduction and has a gradual linear increase in activity with the increase of abduction angle. Neuromuscular Exercises Improve Shoulder Function More Than Standard Care Exercises in Patients With a Traumatic Anterior Shoulder Dislocation: A Randomized Controlled Trial. This muscle can abduct the arm greater than > 100 degrees (USMLE First Aid), or from 160 degrees to 180 degrees (160-180 degrees) (Penn State). obturator internus Blasier RB, Carpenter JE, Huston LJ (1994) Shoulder proprioception: effect of joint laxity, joint position and direction of motion. serratus anterior. Lowe trapezius muscle assists with SA to upwardly rotate the scapula which helps to maintain subacromial space[15]. Deltoid is the second shoulder muscle responsible for arm abduction. Change), You are commenting using your Twitter account. The brachoradialis, in the forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the upper arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion. In addition, this position may be less aggravating for people with a history of shoulder pain because the eccentric phase requires less shoulder horizontal abduction and places a greater emphasis on sagittal plane shoulder extension. The teres minor and infraspinatus muscles are external rotators and participate in the clearing of the greater tubercle underneath the acromion during shoulder movements. So glad you found this helpful, Mardis! > Lie on a bench with your feet flat on the floor. Workout Plans > Grasp the barbell with an opposing thumb grip (thumbs wraps around the bar) with your hands shoulder-width or slightly wider than shoulder-width apart. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.